T Unit Measurement in Linguistics

A T-Unit is a measurement in  linguistics, and refers to a main clause plus any subordinate clauses that may be attached to it. As defined by Kellogg W. Hunt (1964), the T-unit, or minimal terminable unit of language, was intended to measure the smallest word group that could be considered a grammatical sentence, regardless of how it was punctuated. Research suggests that the length of a T-unit may be used as an index of syntactic complexity. In the 1970s, the T-unit became an important unit of measurement in sentence-combining research. T Unit Analysis T-unit analysis, developed by Hunt (1964) has been used extensively to measure the overall syntactic complexity of both speech and writing samples (Gaies, 1980). The T-unit is defined as consisting of a main clause plus all subordinate clauses and nonclausal structures that are attached to or embedded in it (Hunt, 1964). Hunt claims that the length of a T-unit is parallel to the cognitive development of a child and thus the T-unit analysis provides an intuitively satisfying and stable index of language development. The T-units popularity is due to the fact that it is a global measure of linguistic development external to any particular set of data and allows for meaningful comparison between first and second language acquisition. . . .T-unit analysis has been successfully used by Larsen-Freeman Strom (1977) and Perkins (1980) as an objective measure to evaluate the quality of ESL student writing. T-unit measures used in this study include words per composition, sentences per composi tion, T-units per composition, error-free T-units per composition, words in error-free T-units per composition, T-unit length, and ratio of errors versus T-units per composition. (Anam Govardhan, Indian Versus American Students Writing in English. Dialects, Englishes, Creoles, and Education, ed. by Shondel J. Nero. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2006)By analogy with the way modifiers work in sentences, [Francis] Christensen thinks of subordinate T-units as modifying the more general T-unit that semantically encompasses them. The point can be illustrated by the following sentence of William Faulkners: Joads lips stretched tight over his long teeth a moment, and he licked his lips, like a dog, two licks, one in each direction from the middle. Like a dog modifies licked his lips, a relatively general description which could encompass various other types of lip-licking. Similarly, two licks starts to explain how a dog licks its lips, hence is more specific than like a dog. And one in each direction from the middle explains two licks even more specifically. (Richard M. Coe, Toward a Grammar of Passages. Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1988) T-Units and Ordered Development Since young children tend to connect short main clauses with and, they tend to use relatively few words/T-unit. But as they mature, they begin to use a range of appositives, prepositional phrases, and dependent clauses that increase the number of words/T-unit. In subsequent work, Hunt (1977) demonstrated that there is a developmental order in which students develop the capacity to perform types of embedding. Other researchers (e.g. ODonnell, Griffin Norris, 1967) used Hunts unit of measurement to conclusively show that the words/T-unit ratio went up in both oral and written discourse as writers matured. (Thomas Newkirk, The Learner Develops: The High School Years. Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts, 2nd ed., ed. by James Flood et al. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003)

Positive And Negative Effects On The Area Of Education

The Positive and Negative Effects of Globalisation in the Area of Education in the World Today It is universally believed that globalisation has transformed the world into a small village. The world has become increasingly interacted economically, culturally and educationally. According to Zhao (2003, cited in Conroy, 2008, p.1) globalisation is defined as â€Å"the increasing integration of world economies through trade and financial transactions, involving movements of goods, people, and money across national and geographical borders†. The implications of globalisation are manifested in many aspects of the human life. In the field of education, it is apparent that globalisation and education have an interactive relationship. Oxford online dictionary defines education as â€Å"the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction, especially at a school or university† (2015). This essay examines the positive and negative effects of globalisation in the area of education. The impact of globalisation as a global movement has negative as well as positive effects in many different fields. Education is considered an essential element for the development of any civilization. In several areas of the world, education was almost non-existence. In developing countries, globalisation has aid to overcome difficulties that were obstructing education such as poverty and discrimination. Technology, increased global demand and student diversity are positive outcomes of globalisation in theShow MoreRelatedThe Effects of Globalization on Cambodia Essay888 Words   |  4 PagesAlmost on every part of the world, citizens have become a part of the global village. Even though various researches stated that there are negative effects of globalization for particular reasons, the positive impacts were clearly shown to be stronger especially in developing countries such as Cambodia. 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Understanding Equivalence and Non Inferiority Testing

Question: Write an essay onUnderstanding Equivalence and Non Inferiority Testing. Answer: Introduction The research article deals with the effective standards developed in clinical settings that determines whether the current efficacies in use are similar or different from each other. The equivalence as well as non-inferiority with higher efficacies is either to find the difference between the two or to analyze the superiority than the tradition methods. However, the basic aim of the article states the concepts and the statistical methods implicated in testing the equivalence/ non-inferiority efficacies and the critical evaluation of the current usage of these efficacies. Procedure The simplest method that can be used to test equivalence is one-sided test known by TOST procedure which can be extended to testing equivalency in other parameters like odds ratios, means, etc. It is generally carry forward after checking its relevance at the (12) 100% confidence interval for the difference in efficacies because this method is identical to performing two one-sided tests. However, efficacy is measured by two ways firstly, through success rates, when higher is better and through, failure rates which when lower is better. However, after applying the TOST procedure of hypothesis testing using confidence intervals, the strength of evidence is carried out using p value. However, the test can be distinguished as: Traditional testing p-value is less than alpha such that hypothesis (equivalence) is established. Non inferiority p-value is readily available for the TOST. Equivalence Margin The equivalence margin is determined by such that a narrow difference in the value will cause difficulty in establishing equivalence. The value of the study helps in giving result as well as the credibility of the study through relevant evidence and sound clinical considerations. On the other hand, it is primarily designed to minimize the possibility of new theory that stands out to be non-superior to the sample. However, the margin of non-superiority can be evaluated through the previous studies. The displacement from the equivalence with a small fraction can be given by . Conversely, different like Kaul and Diamond, is governed by the maximum efficacy loss of the new theory. Before, the data is recorded, it is important to know the equivalence margin to maintain the Type 1 error at the anticipated level. On the other hand, if there is no difference it does not imply that there would be no equivalence. However, equivalence often lead to incorrect conclusions through wrong hypothesis, non-significant result and no considering of marginal equivalence. Nevertheless, the inconsistencies are measured through the graphs. In TOST and traditional testing, the difference lies between the confidence interval such that in the former, the null hypothesis is rejected and does not cover zero whereas in the latter, the confidence interval is included between the intervals (, ) (Walker and Nowacki 2011). Sample Size and Measure of Effect The sample size is the main dimension in determining number of observations through desired power such that the sample size depends on the equivalence margin. However, the sample size was collected between a new dug and an active control for testing the equivalence using the software PASS. The measure of effect is measured using the proportions in absolute or the relative way. The former explains the difference between the proportions called the absolute risk difference (ARD) whereas when the study is made on the ratios of proportions then the study measures relative risk (RR) as well as odds ratio (OR). The difference lies between the two is that absolute measures are independent of the baseline rate whereas relative measure is dependent to the denominator of equivalence margin (Walker and Nowacki 2011). Analysis of Data The analysis of data is made regarding the decision to be performed on per protocol (PP) or the intention to treat (ITT) analysis. In data analysis, in ITT, the patients either receive the treatment or follow the protocol whereas in PP, the patients receive the treatment, followed by the protocol. The difference in efficacies is smaller in ITT because it makes the equivalence/ non-inferiority hard to reject the null hypothesis and is based on the conservative approach. Therefore, discrepancies experienced in the results the possibility of exclusion bias and the reasons for the non-inclusion of patients in the PP analysis. Conclusion To conclude, the research article emphasizes on the increase in the equivalence due to the new therapies with the same effectiveness and better properties such as lower costs and convenience. Nevertheless, as depicted the confusion in the literature is regarding the equivalence/ non inferiority. The confusion is primarily due to the lack of transparency and uniformity. This applicable when the new methods are introduced with a state of affair that the guidelines for reporting equivalence/ non inferiority studies has improved. However, the use of equivalence/ non inferiority studies has increased if the clinician judges its value in the current times. Reference Walker, E. and Nowacki, A. (2011). Understanding Equivalence and Noninferiority Testing.J GEN INTERN MED, 26(2), pp.192-196.

Was Canadian conscription in World War I justified Essay Example

Was Canadian conscription in World War I justified Paper A. Plan of Investigation Was Canadian conscription in World War I justified? Many people have addressed the issue of Canadian conscription in World War I and debated back and forth as to the justification and necessity of it at the time. The purpose of this internal assessment is to determine whether instituting conscription was a valid decision through an investigation of the different groups affected and their points of views. To do this, I will use a variety of sources and my own knowledge to look at both sides of the argument and come up with a valid conclusion. In section B, I will examine different viewpoints and their reasons for and against conscription. We will write a custom essay sample on Was Canadian conscription in World War I justified specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Was Canadian conscription in World War I justified specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Was Canadian conscription in World War I justified specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In section C, I will evaluate two sources that have very different views as to whether conscription was the right thing to do. In section D, I will analyse the effect of conscription on the population of Canada, how historians view the issue, and its significance in Canadian history. In section E, I will make a final statement and then give my reasons for it. It is my opinion that conscription was unjustified as it infringed on basic rights, and divided the country as it had never been divided before. B. Summary of Evidence Arguments for Conscription The arguments for conscription mainly concern the fact that Borden wanted Canada to appear as a strong united country that was capable of holding her own in battle.i As World War I dragged on, Canadas volunteer recruitment program was failing. Fewer people were volunteering, and Bordens promise of 500 000 men was beginning to look outrageous. Not wanting to appear weak, Borden decided his only option was conscription. To justify this, he said that Canada would finally be considered an autonomous state when the world saw the power of her army.ii Borden also justified it by stating that most European countries supported conscription including Britain.iii He simply did not understand that Canadians did not have the passion for war that the British or any other Europeans did for that matter, because they did not feel like the war affected them in any meaningful way. Arguments against Conscription The arguments against conscription are many, and most if not all are reasonable and justified. One of the main arguments against conscription was that people did not feel like the war affected them in any way, as it was so far away. People did not really care who won the war, because it could never cross the ocean and affect them, and therefore their participation in the war was pointless and stupid.iv Another argument against conscription was that it infringed on the basic rights of Canadians as human beings. In the constitution, it stated that no man should be forced to enlist in the army, unless a force threatened the territory of Canada itself.v With this argument, many Canadians saw it as illegal for the government to conscript men, as they believed the war did not affect Canada directly. The Quebecois were especially against conscription, as they felt they were being discriminated against within the armed forces. Once in the army, Quebeckers had to serve under English commanders who knew little to no French, and the Quebeckers were often harassed.vi They also felt no loyalty to Britain as their English counterparts did, and did not feel loyal to France either.vii Another group that was strongly against conscription was the farmers. They felt conscription was wrong because it took away able-bodied men that were desperately needed on the farm to harvest the crops. They argued that without the crops, there would not be enough supplies to feed the men overseas.viii Another strong argument against conscription, were the facts that came out after the war. Of the 400 000 men who were registered as being up for conscription, only 59 991 were ever ordered to duty. All the others were either granted exemptions, or declared unfit to serve.ix This clearly shows that conscription could not have had that much of an impact if only fifteen percent of men conscripted ever made it to service. Perhaps the biggest argument against conscription, was the loss of so many lives. No matter how hard Borden tried, not many people accepted the loss of so many innocent young men as simply the consequences of a war that half the country did not support. C. Evaluation of Sources Morton, Desmond. When Your Numbers Up: the Canadian Soldier in the First World War. Canada, Random House, 1993. This book, written by Desmond Morton in 1993, is a secondary source that talks about the experiences of Canadian soldiers in World War I. Its purpose is to give information about what it was like to be a soldier in the Canadian forces during World War I through historical research. Its main thesis about conscription is that it was necessary to keep a strong Canadian contingent fighting, not only to help the war effort, but also to show the world what a power Canada was. The main value of this book is that it is written by a well-known and well-respected historian and therefore the information within it is reliable. Its main limitation is that it is a secondary source written many years after the war by someone who did not experience it first hand, and therefore all the information is based on research conducted by him. Grubb, Edward. Memories of the No-Conscription Fellowship by the Treasurer. Canada: Richard Cobden-Sanderson, 1935. This source, written by the treasurer of the organization, Edward Grubb in 1935, is a primary source that recounts the No-Conscription Fellowship, an organization against conscription in Canada during World War I. Its purpose is to give information and detailed accounts of what the organization was and what it did to help in the fight against conscription. Its main thesis is that conscription was wrong because it infringed on basic human rights, and therefore it was their duty to oppose it and fight it any way they could. Its main value is that it is a primary source written by someone who lived during the war and fought conscription himself, and therefore the information is a first-hand account. Its limitations are that it only gives one side of the argument about conscription, and it was written around 17 years after the war, and therefore the information may be embellished or changed. D. Analysis The evidence against conscription far outweighs the evidence for it. This section will analyse what effect conscription had on the population of Canada, and then the opinions of historians on conscription. Finally, I will look at the importance of this issue in the history of Canada. When conscription was first proposed, there was an instant divide between English and French Canada. English Canada was generally for conscription as they felt they should support Britain as much as possible.x French Canada on the other hand, felt no loyalty towards Britain and therefore was strongly opposed. The issue of conscription threatened to divide Canada. Borden faced a tough decision, he had to decide whether to support Britain and gain international recognition, or save his country from internal destruction. When Border chose the former, there was instantly civil unrest throughout the country. In Quebec, there were riots protesting conscription and many refused to serve when they were conscripted. It was not only the men being conscripted who rebelled, police in Quebec who were supposed to get the conscripts mostly refused to do it, so Borden had to gather a special conscription force to go and collect the men. The country was divided as it had never been before, and Borden was very worried. French Canadians were extremely angry at the ignorance of Borden and his lack of sympathy for their cause, while English Canadians felt that the French were going against Canada by opposing conscription. Borden had no solution for this problem, and Canada would remain divided for many years to come. Most historians, when talking about the issue of conscription in Canada during World War I, agree that it was unjustified. One of these historians was Grant Dexter, who wrote an essay specifically on the conscription crisis of 1917. He believed that conscription was wrong because of three main reasons.xi The first, was that it divided the country between English and French and soured relations between the two for years to come. The second reason, was that it infringed on basic constitutional rights set out that said that no man should be forced to fight outside of Canada unless the territory of Canada is threatened directly. The third reason, dealt with obligation without representation, and stated that since Canada had no say in British foreign policy, then she should not be obligated to fight Britains war. This is not to say that all historians agreed that conscription was wrong, some still believed that it was the right thing to do. One of these historians, was Desmond Morton, who wrote When Your Numbers Up, a book that deals with the roles of the Canadian soldier in World War I. In this book, he gives the point of view that conscription was necessary for two main reasons.xii The first, was that more men were necessary to help the war effort in Europe and without it, the central powers might be victorious. The second reason, was that Canada needed to show that she could be a formidable power in international affairs and could hold her own against any other country in the world. Because of these two reasons, Morton felt conscription was the only solution. As is evident from this section, the debate about conscription is not completely one-sided, however the arguments against are far more convincing. The impact of this issue on Canadian history is very great indeed. This was the first time in Canadian history that men had been forced to go to war out of North America. The divisive consequences of conscription would be evident for many decades to come, as there would always be a certain grudge between English and French Canadians on the issue of loyalty to Britain. Over the years that passed after conscription, the issue would continue to be brought up whenever loyalty to Britain was in question or debate. Because of this, many people see it as both a negative and positive event. It is seen as negative because of the division that resulted from it, but it is also seen as positive because it is hard to question our loyalty to Britain when we were willing to go so far as to force young men to go to war and most likely death, simply to show our support for their cause. Conscription will always be remembered in Canada as an issue that separated Canada, but brought us closer to Britain . E. Conclusion In conclusion, conscription in Canada during World War I was unjustified and wrong. It infringed on the basic rights of Canadians set out in the constitution that stated that no man should be forced to fight outside Canada unless there was a direct threat to Canada itself. It also was never fully supported in Canada, simply by the English Canadians who outnumbered French Canadians and therefore made up the majority. It divided Canada between English and French Canadians in a separation that was never fully mended, as there was always a certain resentment between the two groups. The facts speak for themselves, less than fifteen percent of the men conscripted were sent to duty overseas, which shows how futile and useless conscription was. Finally, and most importantly, many innocent lives were lost as a result of conscription, lives that would never be recovered. It does not matter what benefits we gained from the war, nothing can justify the loss of so many lives.